Phage therapy in cancer treatment: Mechanisms, emerging innovations, and translational progress.

Bacteriophage therapy has re-emerged as a rapidly advancing field in oncology, bridging antimicrobial precision with tumor-targeted biotherapy. Beyond infection control, phages are now recognized as programmable biological systems capable of eradicating multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens, modulating tumor-associated microbiota, activating immune responses, and delivering therapeutic genes or drugs. Preclinical evidence shows that phages can selectively eliminate Fusobacterium nucleatum in oral squamous cell carcinoma, restore microbial balance in colorectal cancer, and enhance immune infiltration via cytokine or antigen display. Engineered constructs including GM-CSF-expressing and MAGE-A1-displaying phages, λ-phage ASPH vaccines, and PEGylated nanocarriers delivering MEG3 or TRAIL have demonstrated strong anti-tumor efficacy across melanoma, hepatocellular, and colorectal cancer models. Additionally, CRISPR-Cas-armed phages precisely remove resistance genes such as bla-CTX-M and mecA, while AI-driven selection pipelines enable data-guided design of personalized phage cocktails. These advances represent a paradigm shift from empirical antibacterial use toward mechanistically engineered, multifunctional phage platforms that integrate microbiome modulation, immune activation, and nanocarrier-mediated gene delivery. Although challenges such as immune clearance, bacterial resistance, and regulatory complexity remain, the convergence of AI, CRISPR, and synthetic biology is accelerating the evolution of phage therapy into a clinically viable precision-oncology strategy. In this context, bacteriophages emerge not merely as antibacterial agents but as intelligent, patient-specific nanomedicines poised to redefine therapeutic boundaries in cancer treatment.