Astragalin induces immunogenic cell death in liver cancer by targeting NQO2 to promote ROS-mediated endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway.

Astragalin (ASG), a natural flavonoid glycoside, is known for its multiple pharmacological effects. In this study, we explored the antitumor effects of ASG and its underlying mechanism. Specifically, the growth inhibitory effects of ASG were assessed. Apoptosis rate, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, mitochondrial damage, and the activation of the endoplasmic reticulum stress induced by ASG were assessed. The potential target of ASG was identified and validated. The effects of ASG on immunogenic cell death (ICD) were determined. Furthermore, ASG's growth inhibition was validated in vivo, and its potential synergistic effects with anti-PD-L1 antibody were examined. Our findings demonstrate that ASG effectively inhibits growth in liver cancer cell lines. ASG treatment induces apoptosis by promoting mitochondrial membrane potential disruption and ROS accumulation. Additionally, ASG directly bounds to quinone oxidoreductase 2 (NQO2), leading to a reduction in NQO2 protein levels and subsequent upregulation of key ER stress markers, including p-PERK, p-eIF2α, GRP78, and CHOP. Moreover, ASG induces hallmark features of ICD, including calreticulin exposure, nuclear high mobility group box 1 reduction, and adenosine triphosphate release. ASG-treated liver cancer cells effectively enhance dendritic cell maturation in a coculture system. In vivo, the tumor growth is synergistically inhibited by ASG combined with anti-PD-L1 antibody in Hepa1-6 tumor-bearing mice. This synergy is associated with increased dendritic cell maturation, enhanced CD8 T cell infiltration, and a reduction in regulatory T cells. In conclusion, ASG can be served as a potential anticancer agent for liver cancer and enhance the antitumor efficacy of immunotherapy by activating the ROS-mediated endoplasmic reticulum stress and ICD pathways.