Stimuli-responsive nanomedicines for hepatic diseases: mechanism, design, recent advances, and clinical translation.

In recent years, stimuli-responsive nanomedicines have increasingly attracted attention for their potential in the management of various liver disorders. This review recapitulates a distinctive physiological architecture and pathological microenvironmental characteristics of the liver, providing biological insights into governing accumulation and activation of stimuli-responsive nanomedicines. Design strategies for stimuli-responsive nanomedicines are surveyed, including leveraging both endogenous and exogenous stimuli, as well as combined multi-stimuli. The application of stimuli-responsive nanomedicines design in various hepatic diseases is elaborated, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), liver fibrosis, acute liver injury and other hepatic disorders. The review summarizes current challenges in clinical translation and outlines future perspectives for advancing stimuli-responsive nanomedicines toward personalized, precise diagnostics and therapies of liver diseases.